Journal of Himalayan Earth Sciences

Investigation of Physico-Mechanical Properties of Kohat Limestone at Sur-Dag and adjoining Areas, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan

Nazir-ur- Rehman — 2025-11-30

This research study was conducted to assess the suitability of the Kohat Limestone from the Sur-Dag section as a construction aggregate for civil engineering purposes, utilizing geological laboratory testing. Limestone aggregates are essential components in both small and large-scale civil works projects, including pavements, buildings, bridges, roads, and dams. In addition to being produced from synthetic materials like slags, aggregates are derived from natural materials, including rock, sand, and gravel. The use of these aggregates in any project depends on their engineering properties. These engineering properties should meet the specified standard designated by different organizations like the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO), the American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM), and the British Standards (BS). Laboratory tests were conducted in accordance with these standards to evaluate various parameters of the Eocene Kohat Formation, including specific gravity, water absorption, Aggregate Crushing Value (ACV), Flakiness Index (FI), Elongation Index (EI), Los Angeles Abrasion value (LAAV), Aggregate Impact Value (AIV), as well as coating and stripping values. The Formation is well developed and exposed in the Southern Kohat Basin. At the outcrop level, the color is cream to gray, well-bedded, compact, hard, and rich in fossils. The values of all engineering properties of the samples fall within the acceptable standard ranges. Therefore, this research provides reliable data regarding the suitability and availability of the Kohat Limestone as a construction aggregate in this region. This study concludes that the Kohat Formation is suitable to be used as a sub-base, base course, and concrete aggregates for the construction of buildings and pavements.

Physiochemical, Bacteriological and Heavy Metals Assessment of Groundwater Quality Near Solid Waste Dumping Site

Haleema Yaqoob — 2025-11-30

This study has investigated the impact of dumping sites on groundwater quality in Hazar Khwani, Peshawar, Pakistan. Twelve water samples were randomly selected, with four reference samples collected far from the dumping site and eight representative samples taken within a one-kilometer vicinity. These samples were analyzed for physiochemical parameters and fecal contamination. The results showed that mean values for pH, total dissolved solids (TDS), electrical conductivity (EC), total hardness (TH), chloride (Cl), and total alkalinity (TA) are from 6.13 to 6.83, 657.92 to 2392.2 mg/L, 696.91 to 2658 µS/cm, 394 mg/L to 1030 mg/L, 32 to 573 mg/L and 318 to 716 mg/L respectively. The mean concentrations of heavy metals for zinc (Zn), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), and nickel (Ni) were from 0 to 0.018 mg/L, 0.01 to 0.087 mg/L, 0.04 to 0.142 mg/L, 0 to 0.08 mg/L, and 0.02 to 0.09 mg/L, respectively. Total and fecal coliform contamination was found in 7 out of 12 water samples. The analysis revealed negative correlations between distance and TDS, EC, chloride, Cd, Cu, Cr, and Ni, with particularly strong negative correlations observed for Cd, Cu, and Cr. Depth was negatively correlated with pH, TH, TA, Cu, and Zn, but positively with TDS, EC, chloride, Cd, and Ni. Strong positive correlations were found among TDS, EC, TH, and chloride, and between Cd-Cu, Cd-Cr, and Cu-Cr. Negative correlations were seen for Cd-Ni, Cu-Ni, Cr-Zn, and Zn-Ni. The samples that surpassed the Pak-NEQS and WHO limits had 75% TDS, 58% TA, 8% Cl, 42% TA, 92% EC, 67% Cd, 67% Ni, 83% Cr, and 58% bacteriological contamination. To reduce any negative effects, waste disposal should be properly monitored.

Delineating the Fluvial Channel System in B-Sand of NIM Block in Lower Indus Basin, Pakistan using 3-D seismic attributes

Furqan Mahmud — 2025-11-30

Seismic attributes have emerged as indispensable tools in hydrocarbon exploration, facilitating the identification and characterization of subsurface reservoirs, including fluvial channel systems. These attributes enhance the interpretation of seismic data by extracting quantitative geological and petrophysical information. This study focuses on the B-Sand reservoir within the Cretaceous Lower Goru Formation in the NIM Block of the Lower Indus Basin, Pakistan, which is a proven hydrocarbon-bearing interval. Using integrated seismic and well log data, we analyzed four key seismic attributes, which are sweetness, trace envelope (TE), relative acoustic impedance (RAI), and root mean square (RMS) amplitude, to delineate fluvial channels and assess reservoir potential. Well log interpretations confirm two dominant lithologies within the B-Sand reservoir: sandstone and shale. Seismic mapping reveals a single prominent horizon and four faults, indicative of a step-faulting structural regime. Sweetness highlights high-amplitude zones, correlating with potential hydrocarbon-saturated sand units. RAI analysis effectively discriminates lithological variations, while TE attributes suggest possible gas accumulations. RMS Amplitude further corroborates hydrocarbon indicators, reinforcing the reservoir's prospectivity. The synergistic application of these attributes demonstrates significant hydrocarbon potential within the B-Sand reservoir, justifying further exploration. This approach provides a robust workflow for reservoir characterization in analogous fluvio-deltaic systems.

Machine Learning-Based Assessment of Meteorological Droughts in Chitral and Swat River Basins, Pakistan

Uzair Khan — 2025-11-30

The detrimental effects of droughts on water resources and agriculture can lead to significant economic losses and risk to lives. Using key climatic factors to analyze changes in a relevant index, this study aims to forecast droughts. The study is structured into three distinct phases. First, the computation of the Standardized Precipitation Evapotranspiration Index (SPEI) for the Chitral and Swat River basins was carried out using data from 1981 to 2022. This index is designed to predict both short-term and long-term droughts. Second, the dataset was split into training and testing sets, with 80% designated for training and 20% for testing the models, employing algorithms such as XGBoost, Decision Tree, AdaBoost, and Linear Regression, along with various climate variables. Finally, the models were evaluated using statistical metrics like R² (Coefficient of Determination), RMSE (Root Mean Square Error), MAE (Mean Absolute Error), and MSE (Mean Squared Error), and future predictions from 2023 to 2045 were made based on the well-trained and tested models. The results demonstrate promising performance, with R² values of 0.968, 0.906, 0.901, and 0.287, and RMSE values of 0.265, 0.291, 0.302, and 0.837 for XGBoost, AdaBoost, Decision Tree, and Linear Regression, respectively. The SPEI shows potential as a useful tool for drought prediction, and spatial distribution mapping in ArcMap using the Inverse Distance Weighting method reveals persistent moderate droughts in both basins. Additional research using a larger dataset or combining data from different areas could enhance the applicability of the findings and lead to a deeper understanding.

Predictive Modelling and Spatial Analysis of M3 Motorway-Induced Air Quality Impacts in Punjab

Nausheen Mazhar — 2025-11-30

There is an increasing global concern about the potential environmental impacts of the continuous expansion of highways and transportation infrastructure, particularly regarding air quality. This research provides a comprehensive analysis of the effects of highway development, specifically the M3 Motorway, on air quality in the Punjab region by integrating innovative air impact prediction models and spatial analysis techniques. This research uses ground-based data from 2006 to 2022 and Remote Sensing data (Sentinel-5P and MODIS) from 2018 to 2022. The analysis is focused on the concentrations of key air pollutants, including sulfur dioxide (SO₂₎, nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), carbon monoxide (CO), methane (CH₄), aerosol optical depth (AOD), formaldehyde (HCHO), and ozone (O₃). The results revealed that SO₂ concentrations fluctuated noticeably, ranging from 0.08 to 0.26 µmol/m². Higher amounts were regularly noted in the Renala Khurd and Kabir Wala regions. Similarly, NO₂values ranged from 78.65 to 97.54 µmol/m² in the Renala Khurd and Sahiwal regions. The concentrations of CO varied between 36.30 and 40.30 µmol/m², with higher values found in urban areas. The concentration of CH₄ was noted from 188058 to 1920961.12 µmol/m², reflecting the effects of industry and agricultural pollutants. Predictive modelling coupled with spatial analysis provides a thorough framework for evaluating the complex links between highway construction and air quality. This study helps to balance contemporary transportation networks and environmental stewardship by advancing a more nuanced knowledge of the environmental impact of highway developments in Punjab.

Microplastics in Particulate Matter from Kitchen Air: A Comparison of Rocket and Traditional Stoves

Ukasha Ali — 2025-11-30

Indoor air pollution in rural and resource-constrained households is primarily caused by the use of biomass fuel in cookstoves, a significant risk factor for morbidity and mortality throughout the world. This study uniquely investigates indoor microplastic pollution from cookstove emissions in Pakistani slums, as plastic has been identified as one of the major tertiary fuels used to start cookstoves, addressing a major research gap. Unlike previous local studies focused on outdoor air, this study identifies and characterizes polymeric particles in PM₁₀ and PM_2.5 from 2 different cookstoves, using FTIR and Raman spectroscopy, offering first-time molecular evidence in this context. Particulate matter (PM) samples were collected both from the traditional and the locally manufactured rocket biomass cookstove kitchens, within H-11 and F-11 slums in Islamabad, Pakistan. Two analytical techniques, Raman and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), were employed to identify and characterize microplastics in PM₁₀ and PM_2.5 samples. The detected polymers included polypropylene, polyvinyl chloride, polystyrene, polyolefins, and polyurethanes. At Site 2, LDPE, polyolefins, and polypropylene were identified. Results from the comparative analysis of traditional and rocket stoves in PM₁₀ and PM_2.5 samples revealed a significant difference in the concentration of particulate matter contamination at both sites. The findings from this study indicate that the rocket stove had a lower concentration of particulate matter in PM₁₀ and PM_2.5 samples as compared to the traditional stove, which may suggest that microplastic concentration was also lower, thereby offering enhanced potential health benefits for users, as inhalation and continuous exposure to microplastics are associated with adverse health effects. Overall, ICS reduced PM₁₀ concentrations by 38.73% and PM_2.5 concentrations by 34.75% across both monitored sites. This study emphasizes the importance of using rocket stoves as they offer a superior alternative to traditional stoves by reducing particulate matter and microplastic exposure, making them a cleaner and safer cooking option in slum areas.

Geophysical insights into Tattapani Thermal Spring Azad Kashmir Pakistan: unravelling subsurface geology and geothermal potential

Mehboob ur Rashid — 2025-11-30

Pakistan faces a growing energy demand, and thermal springs represent a potentially significant renewable energy source. This naturally heated thermal water can be harnessed for power generation, space heating, and greenhouses, offering a renewable and sustainable alternative to fossil fuels. Pakistan possesses significant, yet underdeveloped, thermal potential, and exploring and harnessing these resources could yield substantial environmental and economic benefits. The Tattapani thermal spring in Kotli, Azad Kashmir, is investigated for its geothermal energy potential due to its probable high temperatures, favorable geological conditions, and accessibility. The study aims to identify the subsurface geological structure, map the lithology, estimate the depth of the thermal spring reservoir, and infer the migration patterns of the thermal water. The resistivity profile of the Tattapani thermal spring unveiled five distinct layers exhibiting varying resistivity values. The uppermost layer, characterized by a high resistivity zone (> 500Ωm), corresponds to the dolomitic rock of the Abbottabad Formation. The second layer delineates lithological units of Murree sandstone, displaying resistivity values between >200Ωm and ≤500Ωm, indicative of potential meteoric freshwater. The third layer, marked by a resistivity range of >50Ωm to ≤200Ωm, signifies shaley to clayey lithology of the Patala Formation, indicating weathering and erosion by thermal fluid. The fourth layer corresponds to the migration of thermal plumes with a resistivity value of >25Ωm to ≤50Ωm, while a value of >05Ωm characterizes the fifth thermal spring layer of very low resistivity to ≤25Ωm. The very low resistivity values observed in the fifth layer are indicative of an anomalous zone, a characteristic feature of thermal springs. This low resistivity can be attributed to the high concentration of dissolved electrolytes within the mineral-rich thermal fluids. These fluids likely facilitate the alteration, weathering, and erosion of the surrounding rock formations, further enhancing the conductive nature of the zone. The Tattapani thermal spring exhibits a depth range of approximately 35-40 meters, increasing in the northeast-southwest (NE-SW) direction. Thermal plumes, primarily migrating in a NE-SW direction, have a depth range of about 25 meters. The VES data also delineates two aquifers: a shallow aquifer at approximately 10 meters’ depth and a deeper aquifer extending up to 20 meters, both hosted within the sandstone lithology. The shallow depth of the thermal plumes raises concerns about potential contamination of the deeper groundwater aquifer due to their overlapping depths. However, the presence of a barrier layer composed of shaley clay likely protects the shallow aquifer from current contamination. VES data revealed high-resistivity zones (dolomite) and low-resistivity zones (shale), consistent with Cambrian-Paleocene formations. The thermal spring is likely to emerge to the surface through a weak zone along the contact of shale and dolomite. A close correlation between the geological and resistivity sections suggests the presence of a fault or weak zone underlying the spring. This structure could facilitate a thermal convection cell, drive hot water upwelling, and potentially source it from the Poonch River. Detailed magnetic, gravity, and geochemical surveys are recommended to portray the deep-seated structure of the Tattapani thermal spring, while a geochemical survey will demarcate the contamination source by plume migration. Geothermometry and isotopic analysis are also recommended to show the subsurface temperature of thermal water.

Modeling Forest Biodiversity under Climate Change: A MaxEnt Case Study of Cedrus Deodara in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan

Sadaf Safdar — 2025-11-30

This study models the current and future distribution of Cedrus Deodara, a native conifer of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP), Pakistan, at a spatial resolution of 1 km. Presence-only occurrence data were obtained from the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) and combined with bioclimatic and topographic variables. To reduce redundancy, a multicollinearity test was performed on 22 candidate predictors, and highly correlated variables (r ≥ 0.9) were excluded. The Maximum Entropy (MaxEnt) model was applied to predict species distribution under present conditions and two future climate scenarios (SSP2-4.5 and SSP5-8.5) for 2090. Model performance was evaluated using the AUC, TSS, and overall accuracy. The obtained results show a good performance of the model for present and future models as well, gaining the ROC-AUC value of 0.72 and 0.77, respectively. Based on the 10^th percentile training presence-threshold dependent, the overall accuracy of the model and TSS are 0.75 and 0.74, respectively. Jackknife analysis revealed precipitation variables as the most influential contributors to Cedrus Deodara distribution. Results suggest that the species will experience substantial habitat contraction under SSP2-4.5, whereas distributional shifts under SSP5-8.5 are comparatively minor. These findings emphasize the vulnerability of Cedrus Deodara to climate change and demonstrate the value of MaxEnt modeling for informing conservation and management strategies in biodiversity-rich regions.

Climate Inclusive Flood Inundation Modeling Using HEC-RAS: A Case Study of Panjkora River, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan

Hafsa Wadood — 2025-11-30

Floods are among the most devastating climate-induced hazards, with severe socio-economic consequences, particularly in underdeveloped countries. Pakistan is highly vulnerable to climate change and has experienced several catastrophic flood events in recent decades. This study assesses future flood risks in the Panjkora River Basin, one of the major catchments in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province, using hydrological and hydraulic modelling under different climate change scenarios. The Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) was employed to simulate hydrological processes using a 29-year weather dataset (1981–2010). Model calibration (1981–2002) and validation (2003–2010) demonstrated strong performance, with coefficient of determination (R²) values of 0.731 and 0.721 and Nash–Sutcliffe efficiency (NSE) values of 0.72 and 0.71, respectively. Future projections were analyzed under Shared Socioeconomic Pathways (SSP 2–4.5, moderate emissions, and SSP 5–8.5, high emissions) for three periods: near future (2026–2050), mid-century (2051–2075), and late century (2076–2099). Flood inundation mapping was conducted using the Hydrologic Engineering Centre’s River Analysis System (HEC-RAS). The results reveal a significant increase in flood inundation, particularly under SSP 5–8.5. Discharge is projected to increase by approximately 25% under SSP 2–4.5 and 27% under SSP 5–8.5 compared to the historical baseline. These findings underscore the increasing flood risks in the Panjkora River Basin under future climate change scenarios and highlight the need for adaptive water resource management and disaster risk reduction strategies in the region.

Landscape Metrics and NDVI Analysis to analyze Urban Growth and Green Space loss: Insights from Murree Tehsil (2000-2020)

Samra Waheed — 2025-11-30

Investigating changes in vegetation is crucial for understanding interactions between land and atmosphere, and their consequent effects on climate. The variations in Land Use Land Cover hold profound implications for environmental conditions and landscape characteristics. In this study, we focus on detecting transformations in green spaces and analyzing the landscape patterns within Murree Tehsil, which is an area driven by over-increasing urbanization trends and eco-tourism attractions in Pakistan. We employed multi-temporal Landsat imagery, including TM and OLI-TRIS from the years 2000, 2010, and 2020, and detected changes in the green space and calculated various landscape metrics. Our findings show concerning trends, as the dense vegetation that accounted for 62.44% in 2000 decreased to a mere 56.31% by 2020. In contrast, sparse vegetation and settlements, which represented 22.06% and 2.02% in 2000, surged to 30.13% and 6.73%, respectively, by 2020. The landscape metrics also revealed decreasing trends until 2010 and a slight increase in 2020 due to afforestation efforts. The dynamic transformation of Murree's landscape underscores a multifaceted process that is fundamentally reshaping the local ecosystem. Considering these changes, it becomes important to assess and estimate these changes with precision. Such understanding would have a direct relevance for effective planning and the sustainable utilization of our natural resources.

Tectonostratigraphic Evolution of the Kalat and Mach area, Northern Kirthar Range, Balochistan Basin, Pakistan

Mohammad Irfan Khan — 2025-11-30

In this study, the stratigraphic and sedimentological data have been utilized to decipher the tectonostratigraphic evolution of the Kalat and Mach area of the northern Kirthar Range, Balochistan Basin, Pakistan. Three (3) stratigraphic sections are measured, and the Jurassic-Paleogene facies variation with their depositional environments is documented in the study area. Based on the biostratigraphic and facies augmented information, four tectonostratigraphic evolution stages are described which include a) The late early Jurassic (Toarcian)-mid Jurassic (Callovian-Aalenian) around 180 Ma-159.4 Ma; the deposition of Anjira-Chiltan Formation, and a late Jurassic thermal uplift; preceding the Indo-Madagascar separation from the Afro–Arbian Plate may have caused the shallowing and ultimately the exposure of mid Jurassic carbonate platform forming an erosional unconformity, b) early Cretaceous (Berreiasian) black clays and the interbedded clastics of the Parh Limestone (equivalent to the Sembar Formation) relates to the thermal uplift of the eastern margin of the Indo-Pak Plate and reworking of the late Jurassic paleosoles of the Chiltan Formation in the deep marine settings. c) The constituent facies of the Accretionary Prism Sediments (APS) and its stratigraphic relationship within the study area confirms that its obduction is related to the middle Cretaceous (late Coniacian-early Santonian) around 84-86 Ma during passive margin phase of the Indian Plate d) The uplift of the middle Eocene (Lutetian) carbonate platform is evident from the deposition of the fluvial reddish clays which are sandwiched between the foraminiferal limestone of the Kirthar Formation. The study area has promising reservoir rock potential, with multiple horizons present. Notable candidates include the Chiltan limestone, Parh Limestone, and various dolomite and sandstone horizons. The Ghazij Formation, rich in shale, is an ideal seal. However, an angular unconformity at the base of the Kirthar Formation suggests Eocene deformation, raising uncertainties about its presence. Despite these uncertainties, the study area has favorable geological characteristics for a viable petroleum system.

Rainfed Wheat Productivity: Assessing the Efficacy of Hydrogel Intervention for Improved Soil Moisture Conservation

Rahina Kausar — 2025-11-30

Soil moisture scarcity is a major constraint to achieving potential soil productivity in arid and semi-arid regions. Hydrogel application has shown promise in addressing this issue, but its benefits for crop improvement and soil moisture retention require further exploration. This study evaluated the impact of hydrogel on soil moisture retention, soil characteristics, and wheat yield in a rainfed agricultural system in Jand, Attock. A randomized complete block design (RCBD) experiment with four replications was conducted from 2018 to 2021, comprising three treatments: control (no hydrogel), hydrogel application via seed drill, and hydrogel application via broadcast. Results revealed significant enhancements in relative soil moisture contents (up to 33.25%) and wheat yield (3960 kg ha^-1) with hydrogel application. Increase in nutrient availability (2.57 to 3.43 mg kg^-1 of P₂O₅, 51.26 to 76 K₂O) and soil organic matter contents (0.62 to 0.77) were also observed. This study demonstrated the potential of hydrogel as a strategy to improve crop productivity in rainfed regions.