Journal of Himalayan Earth Sciences

Extracting clear ice surface of mountainous glaciers of Karakoram Range using Machine Learning for different Band Ratio compositions of OLI: Case Study of Hunza Sub-Basin

Syed Najam ul Hassan, Mohd Nadzri Md. Reba, Aftab Ahmed — Thu, 27 Mar 2025 00:00:00 +0000

Glaciers in the Hindu Kush-Karakoram-Himalaya region impact Earth's climate, contribute freshwater downstream, and influence weather patterns of precipitation and temperature. However, the region needs more detailed information about its glaciers. Specifically, the stability of glaciers in the Karakoram range of the Hunza sub-basin is a well-known anomaly. Therefore, monitoring its glaciers is needed to understand the dynamics of climate change in HKH. Glacier inventory is baseline data for monitoring, and the clear-ice surface is a quantifying parameter of glacier changes. Recently, Operational Land Imager (OLI), exploited with machine learning (ML), is highly recommended for glacier monitoring due to improved accuracy. So, it is necessary to update the current status of glaciers in sub-basin using OLI and ML. Therefore, the study aims a) to evaluate the current extent of clear ice in the sub-basin to examine stability and b) to exploit the application of ML for extracting clear ice from OLI and assess accuracy. Google Earth environment is used to derive the data of Optical Land Imager and further analyze it with a machine learning approach to classify the extent of clear ice. Random Forest classifier with minimum Root means square error (0.1 to 0.4) used through SNAP environment. Results indicate satisfactory spatial distribution of clear ice in higher elevations (> 5000 meters). 10 % area difference percentage exhibited in overall extent; however, 28 glaciers (area > 5 km2) showed variation in the extent and confirmed the localized heterogeneity. Overall accuracy (82% to 83 %) and kappa coefficient values (0.64 to 0.65) confirm the role of individual bands of OLI. It is concluded that the glaciers in the sub-basin have an overall stable clear-ice extent except for variations in terminal ends. Meanwhile, machine learning has a significant role in the automatic extraction of clear ice when exploited with the OLI.

The Role of 3D Subsurface Modelling for Geotechnical Engineering Data Visualization

Thu, 27 Mar 2025 00:00:00 +0000

The main objective of this study is to explore the application of 3D subsurface modelling as an advanced data visualization technique in geotechnical engineering prior to the designing and planning of civil engineering infrastructure. A detailed three-dimensional subsurface model of New City Phase-II, Wah Cantt, is created using a large dataset of bore logs, encompassing coordinates, depth measurements, elevation data, and lithology types of the study area. The combination of Geographic Information System (GIS) and Computer-Aided Design (CAD) technology has simplified the creation of this comprehensive three-dimensional model, resulting in a considerable advancement in the representation of complicated subsurface formations. The subsurface model highlighted the spatial distribution and lithological features of subsurface layers, indicating the presence of silty clay with varied stiffness at different depths. The validation using field data suggested a substantial spatial correlation, demonstrating the model's reliability. This study emphasizes the importance of 3D subsurface modelling in improving geotechnical site characterization, foundation design, hazard risk assessment, and effective land use planning. Future research will employ advanced imaging technologies, and data integration approaches to increase model accuracy and feasibility in a variety of geotechnical contexts.

Analyzing Flow Characteristics in the Neelum River using Advanced Hydrodynamic Simulations

Ehtisham Mehmood, Haishen Lü, Soban Qamar — Thu, 27 Mar 2025 00:00:00 +0000

The Neelum River in northern Pakistan has intricate flow characteristics owing to its unique geographic and climatic factors, which are essential for managing water resources and preventing floods. This study employs hydraulic modeling with the HEC-RAS program to assess the flow dynamics and flood risks of the Neelum River. The study focuses on two different river segments: the urbanized Muzaffarabad part and the natural stretch that runs from Panjgiran to Dhani. Based on topographical and infrastructure factors, hydraulic models were used to examine flow velocities, water depths, and flood threats. The topography and channel morphology in the natural segment affect both flow velocity and depth; at River Station 6966, the highest flow velocity of 6.26 m/s and the average water depth of 2.98 m were observed. On the other hand, the urbanized area of Muzaffarabad shows notable changes in its hydraulic behavior; the water surface heights in this area range from 925.65 to 945.20 meters, and the flow rates vary from 915.5 m/s to 940.0 m/s. The natural segment has a more curved channel and less erosion potential than the restricted channels and smaller floodplain regions in Muzaffarabad. These results emphasize the need for region-specific flood management plans that are adapted to the unique hydraulic characteristics and hazards of both rural and urban areas. Effective sustainable river management in both rural and urban environments can be accomplished by creating comprehensive flood profiles.

Assessment of Physiochemical Parameters of Drinking Water from Different Sources of Palosi Maghdarzai, Peshawar, Pakistan

Thu, 27 Mar 2025 00:00:00 +0000

The present study was conducted using fifty samples (tube wells, bore wells, and hand pumps) to investigate both the physical and chemical parameters of drinking water in the village of Palosi Maghdarzai, Kandi Bala, Peshawar. The analysis was carried out according to the standard analysis procedures reported in the literature. Several analytical techniques, including titration and flame photometry were employed to assess the level of drinking water quality in the area under investigation. The results obtained for each parameter were compared with the standard guidelines of the World Health Organization (WHO). The findings indicated that parameters like pH, Total dissolved solids (TDS), total alkalinity, chloride, and sodium in drinking water were within the permissible limits given by the WHO, while Electrical conductivity (EC), total hardness, calcium hardness, magnesium hardness, and potassium exceeded the permissible limit in some samples. It is concluded that tube well water can be considered safe amongst bore water and hand pump water.

Effect of Vertical Contact Pressure on the Lateral response of Combined Piled Raft Foundation: A Numerical Study

Thu, 27 Mar 2025 00:00:00 +0000

In combined pile-raft foundations (CPRF), geotechnical engineers often assume that the lateral load is mainly supported by the piles, ignoring the contribution of the raft. This assumption can lead to a more expensive and less efficient foundation system. Various studies have examined the effects of factors such as the number of piles, pile length, pile configuration, and spacing-to-diameter ratio on the raft's contribution to lateral load. However, there is limited research on how vertical contact pressure beneath the raft affects the lateral load distribution between the raft and piles in CPRF. This study investigates the influence of vertical contact pressure on the lateral load distribution of raft and piles, focusing the impact on the front and back piles, and the effect of pile-raft configuration on lateral load distribution, while maintaining constant average vertical and lateral load per pile. In first case, a parametric study was conducted through finite element software PLAXIS-3D on small-scale piled raft model with configurations of 4 piles. A total of 14 models were created where vertical load was uniformly increased under a constant lateral load to observe the lateral response. In the second scenario, a piled raft with 4, 6 and 9 pile configurations were analysed such that average vertical and lateral load per pile across each model was maintained uniform. The results indicated that increasing vertical load enhanced the lateral response and reduced differential settlement in CPRF. The raft's lateral load contribution was found to be directly proportional to the vertical contact pressure. Additionally, at lower vertical loads, the front piles bear more lateral load than the back piles. As vertical load increased, the lateral load-bearing capacity of the back piles improved due to increased soil stiffness in front of the back piles.

Investigating the Impact of J-Head Spur Dike Orientation and Spacing on River Reach Efficiency Using HEC-RAS 2D

Khan Muhammad, Mujahid Khan, Muhammad Ajmal — Thu, 27 Mar 2025 00:00:00 +0000

The study evaluates the performance of J-head spur dikes in controlling lateral migration and bank erosion along the right bank of the Indus River, downstream of the Ghazi Ghat Bridge in Dera Ghazi Khan district, Punjab, Pakistan. The erosion of the outer bank poses significant threats to infrastructures and local settlements, highlighting the need for spur dikes to regulate flow and implement protection measures. The HEC-RAS 2D model was used for this analysis. The results revealed that spur dikes oriented upstream were generally ineffective due to clogging of an active creek, whereas a downstream orientation at 120° was found more effective in diverting flow towards the main channel than at 135°. To manage high flood events, it was proposed to raise left bund by 2 ft and the spur at RD 138+000 by 1.50 ft. The performance of existing spur dikes was analyzed based on the prevailing spacing of 2 to 5 times the length of the spur at RD 138+000. Additional spur dikes at RD 141+500 and RD 154+000, near Samina Town and Basti Bhai, were introduced to improve flow patterns and protect irrigation infrastructures and local settlements. It was observed that at low flows, the velocity along both creeks was slightly declined from 1.09 to 0.92 ft/sec, while at high flows, the velocity reduced from 1.92 to 1.33 ft/sec between RD 138+000 and RD 148+000, and from 2.69 to 2.34 ft/sec between RD 148+000 and RD 165+000. These findings emphasize the need for customized spur dikes designs, considering orientation, spacing and hydraulic conditions. The findings of this study provide valuable insights and may be used to enhance flood management, infrastructure safety, and sustainable riverbank protection for future interventions.

Geometry and Kinematics of the Gentle to Open Fault-propagation Fold having Four-way Dip Enclosure: Outcrop and Lineament Analysis of the Rois Anticline, Southern Kirthar Fold Belt, Pakistan

Thu, 27 Mar 2025 00:00:00 +0000

The Rois anticline is located in the Southern Kirthar Fold Belt, Pakistan, and it exhibits an ideal example of fault-related folding. In this study we analyzed outcrop and lineaments data to understand geometry, lineament distribution pattern and kinematics of the fault-propagation Rois anticline. The outcrop observations were supported with geometrical parameters determined through stereographic projections to understand geometry of the anticline. Outcrop observations indicated that the Rois anticline is about 6.5Km along and 02Km across strike, N-S trending, culminated anticline having steep eastern and gentle western limbs, exhibiting four-way dip enclosure. The anticline is bounded by emergent frontal thrust in the eastern limb and by tear fault (lateral ramp) along the northern part. Geometrical parameters, i.e. fold axis, axial plane, interlimb angle and fold vergence, indicated that the Rois anticline is an asymmetrical, doubly-plunging, inclined to upright, gentle to open and ESE-vergent fold. The lineaments were extracted automatically from Digital Elevation Models. The transverse and longitudinal lineaments are identified in the Rois anticline. Transverse lineaments occur in the culmination, indicating anticline has experienced outer-arc extension. The longitudinal lineaments are concentrated in hinge area of the Rois anticline, which indicate fold-parallel stretching in its high-strain parts. The lineaments are interpreted as fold-related axial fractures or minor faults associated with propagating fault. Emergent frontal thrust, fold asymmetry, steep eastern limb and longitudinal axial lineaments supports the model of fault-propagation fold. It is developed due to east-directed compressional stresses linked to the oblique collision of the Indian Plate and Afghan Block along the Ornach-Nal and Chaman plate boundary. The Rois anticline has accommodated localized coaxial strain partitioning, associated with regional pure shear.