The Lower and Middle Siwaliks fluvial depositional system of the western Himalayan foreland basin, Kohat, Pakistan
Keywords:
Chinji-Nagri Formations; Depositional system; Kohat; Himalaya; PakistanAbstract
The lower and middle Siwaliks equivalent to the Chinji and Nagri formations in Kohat-Potwar plateau, were deposited in a terrestrial foreland basin that developed in response to the Himalayan orogenic movements. Detailed sedimentologic studies from three different sections reveal that both the Chinji and Nagri formations consists of four lithofacies that are abbreviated as C and N, respectively. These include Cross-bedded Channel Sandstone Facies (C1), Cross-bedded and Cross-laminated Sandstone Facies (C2), Interbedded Mudstone, Siltstone and Sandstone Facies (C3) and Mudstone Facies (C4), and Channel Conglomerates Facies (N1), Cross-bedded Sandstone Facies (N2), Interbedded Sandstone, Siltstone and Mudstone Facies (N3) and Mudstone Facies (N4). C1 facies of the Chinji Formation probably represents deposits of mixed-load channels, from which C2 facies of crevasse splay channels in associated floodplains was produced by frequent crevassing and avulsion. C3 facies is interpreted as overbank deposits produced by the waning flow strength of sandy to muddy sheetfloods through crevasse splays, whereas C4 facies indicates a flood basin origin in a well drained oxygenated environment. N1 facies probably represents the collapse of cohesive bank sediments into nearby channels. N2 facies suggests sand deposition in very wide, shallow channels of a distal, sand-dominant braided fluvial system. N3 facies is interpreted to be a crevasse channel-fill deposit, whereas N4 facies probably represents levee and minor distal splay deposits.
Sandstone of the Chinji Formation was most probably deposited by mixed-load rivers, which transported fine suspended sediment as well as significant bedload, whereas the floodplain deposits of the Chinji Formation seem to be deposited by suspended-load rivers. Presence of calcrete concretions and mottling within the mudstone indicate incipient soil formation and limited subaerial exposure of the mudstone facies. The Nagri Formation was most probably deposited by sandy bedload braided fluvial system.
Furthermore, vertical stacking of the multistorey sandstone complex with varied facies associations, the sheet geometry, and frequent occurrence of erosional surfaces suggests its deposition in a braided river environment. The upward transition from mudstone-dominant facies (Chinji formations) to sandstone facies (Nagri Formation) suggests a systematic shift from distal to proximal fluvial deposits associated either with thrusting and/or uplift of the orogenic belt or a higher rate sedimentation than of subsidence in the basin.
The depositional model for the Miocene fluvial system of the Himalayan Foreland Basin can best be represented by a wide channel belt, internally showing a braided morphology of minor channels, wholly enclosed within finer-grained overbank sediments. The minor differences among the studied outcrops indicate contemporaneous deposition within a single large braided river such as the Brahmaputra where a variety of styles of deposition can be observed within the river at any given moment. Significantly thick floodplain deposits of the Chinji Formation show rapid accommodation generation whereas subordinate amount of floodplain deposits in Nagri Formation show relatively static or slow accommodation generation in the basin.
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