Drinking water quality assessment using water quality index and geostatistical techniques, Mardan District, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan.
Keywords:
Water quality, Water quality index, Effective weights, Empirical bayesian kriging, Ordinary kriging, Principal component analysisAbstract
In this study, the Water Quality Index (WQI) was calculated for drinking water samples collected from an area of Mardan district. A total of 30 water samples were collected from water distribution systems at the end user end. The samples were analyzed for 21 parameters namely, C, pH, EC, Do, TDS, NTU, TH, Ca, Mg, Na, K, SO4, NO3, Mn, Cu, Fe, Zn, Pb, Ni, Cd and Cr. Standard methods were used for the analysis of the physicochemical parameters while heavy and trace metals analyzed using Atomic Absorption Spectrometer. For the calculation of Water Quality Index, all parameters were subjected to screening using principal component analysis, thus reducing the original number of parameters to a final list of ten. The final list of parameters was used to calculate and map WQI. Moreover, two methods of kriging Ordinary Kriging and Empirical Beysian Kriging were compared for their performance in modelling the spatial distribution of the selected parameters in the study area. It was found that EBK performance was more appropriate as compared to other spatial variability models for the majority of the variables.
References
Abdel-Satar, A. M., Ali, M. H., Goher, M. E., 2017. Indices of water quality and metal pollution of Nile River, Egypt. The Egyptian Journal of Aquatic Research, 43(1), 21–29.
Ahmed, N., Bodrud-Doza, M., Towfiqul Islam, A. R. M., Hossain, S., Moniruzzaman, M., Deb, N., Bhuiyan, M. A. Q., 2019. Appraising spatial variations of As, Fe, Mn and NO3 contaminations associated health risks of drinking water from Surma basin, Bangladesh. Chemosphere, 218, 726–740.
Ali, W., Khan, H. Q., Latif, K., 2009. Pb, Cr, Ni and Cd contamination in Hand pump and Tap water of Mardan District. The Environ Monitor, 9(11–12), 13–26.
Ali, W., Nafees, M., 2015. Nitrates and other Major Ions Concentration in the Groundwater of Mardan City and its vicinity. Journal of Science and Technology, University of Peshawar, 39(2), 13–20.
Anonymous. 2017. District and Tehsil level population. Summary with region break up population no of HH District / Tehsil region. Retrieved from:
http://www.pbscensus.gov.pk/sites/default/file s/bwpsr/kp/MARDAN_SUMMARY.pdf. Arslan, H., 2012. Spatial and temporal mapping of groundwater salinity using ordinary kriging and indicator kriging: The case of Bafra Plain, Turkey. Agricultural Water Management, 113, 57–63.
Audu, I., Usman, A., 2015. An Application of Geostatistics to Analysis of Water Quality Parameters in Rivers and Streams in Niger State, Nigeria. American Journal of Theoretical and Applied Statistics, 4(5), 373.
Ayaz, S., Khan, S., Khan, S. N., Bibi, F., Shamas, S., Akhtar, M., 2011. Prevalence of Zoonotic Parasites in Drinking Water of Three Districts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province, Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Life and Social Sciences, 9(1), 67–69.
Azizullah, A., Khattak, M. N. K., Richter, P., Häder, D. P., 2011. Water pollution in Pakistan and its impact on public health - A review. Environment International, 37(2), 479–497.
Barnett, V., 2004. Environmental Statistics: Methods and Applications. J. Wiley.
Bartlett, M. S., 1950. Tests of significance in factor analysis. British Journal of Statistical Psychology, 3(2), 77–85.
Beamonte Córdoba, E., Casino Martínez, A., Veres Ferrer, E., 2010. Water quality indicators: Comparison of a probabilistic index and a general quality index. The case of the Confederación Hidrográfica del Júcar (Spain). Ecological Indicators, 10(5), 1049–1054.
Bhuiyan, M. A. H., Bodrud-Doza, M., Islam, A. R. M. T., Rakib, M. A., Rahman, M. S., Ramanathan, A. L., 2016. Assessment of groundwater quality of Lakshimpur district of Bangladesh using water quality indices, geostatistical methods, and multivariate analysis. Environmental Earth Sciences, 75(12), 1020.
Bhuiyan, M. A. H., Rakib, M. A., Dampare, S. B., Ganyaglo, S., Suzuki, S., 2011. Surface water quality assessment in the central part of Bangladesh using multivariate analysis. KSCE Journal of Civil Engineering, 15(6), 995–1003.
Chaurasia, A. K., Pandey, H. K., Tiwari, S. K., Prakash, R., Pandey, P., Ram, A., 2018. Groundwater Quality assessment using Water Quality Index (WQI) in parts of Varanasi District, Uttar Pradesh, India. Journal of the Geological Society of India, 92(1), 76–82.
Cotruvo, J. A., 2017. WHO Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality: First Addendum to the Fourth Edition. Journal American Water Works Association, 109, 44–51.
Cressie, N., 1992. Statistics for spatial data. Terra Nova, 4(5), 613–617.
De La Mora-Orozco, C., Flores-Lopez, H., Rubio-Arias, H., Chavez-Duran, A., Ochoa-Rivero, J., 2017. Developing a Water Quality Index (WQI) for an Irrigation Dam. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 14(5).
ESRI. 2019. Comparing models—Help | ArcGIS Desktop. Retrieved February 17, 2019, from http://desktop.arcgis.com/en/arcmap/latest/extensions/geostatistical-analyst/comparing-models.htm
Ewaid, S. H., Abed, S. A., 2017. Water quality index for Al-Gharraf River, southern Iraq. The Egyptian Journal of Aquatic Research, 43(2), 117–122.
Gundogdu, K. S., Guney, I., 2007. Spatial analyses of groundwater levels using universal kriging. Journal of Earth System Science, 116(1), 49–55.
Hengl, T., 2008. A Practical guide to Geostatistical Mapping. EUR - Scientific and Technical Research Reports.
Jackson, D. A., 1993. Stopping Rules in Principal Components Analysis: A Comparison of Heuristical and Statistical Approaches. Ecology, 74(8), 2204–2214.
Johnson, C. D., Nandi, A., Joyner, T. A., Luffman, I., 2018. Iron and Manganese in Groundwater: Using Kriging and GIS to Locate High Concentrations in Buncombe County, North Carolina. Groundwater, 56(1), 87–95.
Kaiser, H. F., 1958. The varimax criterion for analytic rotation in factor analysis. Psychometrika, 23(3), 187–200.
Khan, A. R., Rafique, M., Rahman, S. U., Basharat, M., Shahzadi, C., Ahmed, I., 2019. Geo-spatial analysis of radon in spring and well water using kriging interpolation method. Water Science and Technology: Water Supply, 19 (1), 222–235.
Khan, K., Lu, Y., Khan, H., Zakir, S., Ihsanullah, Khan, S., Wang, T., 2013. Health risks associated with heavy metals in the drinking water of Swat, northern Pakistan. Journal of Environmental Sciences, 25(10), 2003–2013.
Khan, S., Shahnaz, M., Jehan, N., Rehman, S., Shah, M. T., Din, I., 2013. Drinking water quality and human health risk in Charsadda district, Pakistan. Journal of Cleaner Production, 60, 93–101.
Khosravi, R., Eslami, H., Peirovi, R., Heidari, M., Fallahzadeh, R. A., Almodaresi, S. A., Taghavi, M., 2017. Use of geographic information system and water quality index to assess groundwater quality for drinking purpose in Birjand City, Iran. Desalinization and Water Treatment, 67, 74–83.
Kitanidis, P. K. 1997. Introduction to geostatistics: applications to hydrogeology. Cambridge University Press. Retrieved from https://www.cambridge.org/gb/academic/subjects/earth-and-environmental-science/hydrology-hydrogeology-and-water-resources/introduction-geostatistics-applications-hydrogeology?format=PB&isbn=9780521587471
Kumar, K. S., Logeshkumaran, A., Magesh, N. S., Godson, P. S., Chandrasekar, N., 2015. Hydro-geochemistry and application of water quality index (WQI) for groundwater quality assessment, Anna Nagar, part of Chennai City, Tamil Nadu, India. Applied Water Science, 5(4), 335–343.
Krivoruchko, K. 2012. Empirical Bayesian Kriging Implemented in ArcGIS Geostatistical Analyst. Retrieved from https://www.esri.com/NEWS/ARCUSER/1012/files/ebk.pdf
Li, H., Smith, C., Wang, L., Li, Z., Xiong, C., Zhang, R., Zhang, R., 2019. Combining Spatial Analysis and a Drinking Water Quality Index to Evaluate Monitoring Data. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16 (3), 357. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16030357
Liang, C. P., Chen, J. S., Chien, Y.C., Chen, C. F. 2018. Spatial analysis of the risk to human health from exposure to arsenic contaminated groundwater: A kriging approach. Science of The Total Environment, 627, 1048–1057.
Liu, C.W., Lin, K. H., Kuo, Y. M. 2003. Application of factor analysis in the assessment of groundwater quality in a blackfoot disease area in Taiwan. The Science of the Total Environment, 313, 77–89.
Liu, W. C., Yu, H. L., Chung, C. E., 2011. Assessment of water quality in a subtropical alpine lake using multivariate statistical techniques and geostatistical mapping: a case study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 8(4), 1126–1140.
Masoud, A. A., 2014. Groundwater quality assessment of the shallow aquifers west of the Nile Delta (Egypt) using multivariate statistical and geostatistical techniques. Journal of African Earth Sciences, 95, 123–137.
McLeod, L., Bharadwaj, L., Epp, T., Waldner, C. L. 2017. Use of principal components analysis and kriging to predict groundwater-sourced rural drinkingwater quality in saskatchewan. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health.
Memon, M., Soomro, M. S., Akhtar, M. S., Memon, K. S., 2011. Drinking water quality assessment in Southern Sindh (Pakistan). Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 177(1–4), 39–50.
Mir, A., Piri, J., Kisi, O., 2017. Spatial monitoring and zoning water quality of Sistan River in the wet and dry years using GIS and geostatistics. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, 135, 38–50.
Misaghi, F., Delgosha, F., Razzaghmanesh, M., Myers, B., 2017. Introducing a water quality index for assessing water for irrigation purposes: A case study of the Ghezel Ozan River. Science of the Total Environment. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.02.226
Muhammad, S., Tahir Shah, M., Khan, S., 2010. Arsenic health risk assessment in drinking water and source apportionment using multivariate statistical techniques in Kohistan region, northern Pakistan. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 48(10), 2855–2864.
Murphy, R. R., Curriero, F. C., Ball, W. P., Asce, M., 2010. Comparison of Spatial Interpolation Methods for Water Quality Evaluation in the Chesapeake Bay. Journal of Environmental Engineering, 136(2), 160–171.
Nabeela, F., Azizullah, A., Bibi, R., Uzma, S., Murad, W., Shakir, S. K., Häder, D. P., 2014. Microbial contamination of drinking water in Pakistan—a review. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 21(24), 13929–13942.
Narany, T. S., Ramli, M. F., Aris, A. Z., Sulaiman, W. N. A., Fakharian, K., 2014. Spatial assessment of groundwater quality monitoring wells using indicator kriging and risk mapping, Amol-Babol Plain, Iran. Water (Switzerland), 6(1), 68–85.
Paz-Ferreiro, J., Vázquez, E. V., Vieira, S. R., 2010. Geostatistical analysis of a geochemical dataset. Bragantia, 69 (suppl), 121–129.
Ponsadailakshmi, S., Sankari, S. G., Prasanna, S. M., Madhurambal, G., 2018. Evaluation of water quality suitability for drinking using drinking water quality index in Nagapattinam district, Tamil Nadu in Southern India. Groundwater for Sustainable Development, 6, 43–49.
Reimann, C., Filzmoser, P., Garrett, R. G., Dutter, R. 2008. Statistical Data Analysis Explained: Applied Environmental Statistics with R. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Renard, phillipe, Demougeot-Renard, H., Froidevaux, R., 2005. Geostatistics for Environmental Applications. Proceedings of the Fifth European Conference on Geostatistics for Environmental Applications. Berlin: Springer Verlag.
Robinson, T. P., Metternicht, G. 2006. Testing the performance of spatial interpolation techniques for mapping soil properties. Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, 50(2), 97–108.
Romanto, Wardiatno, Y. 2015. Water Quality Status of Ciambulawung River, Banten Province, Based on Pollution Index and NSF-WQI. Procedia Environmental Sciences, 24, 228–237.
Roxy Peck, Chris Olsen, Jay L. Devore. 2008. Introduction to Statistics and Data Analysis (Third Edition). Blemont, Thomson Brooks.
Saha, N., Das, S., Islam, A. R. M. T., Bodrud- Doza, M., Ahmed, F., Rahman, M. S. 2016. Characterization of groundwater quality using water evaluation indices, multivariate statistics and geostatistics in central Bangladesh. Water Science, 30(1), 19–40.
Sahoo, M. M., Patra, K. C., Khatua, K. K. 2015. Inference of Water Quality Index Using ANFIA and PCA. Aquatic Procedia, 4, 1099–1106.
Sahu, P., Sikdar, P. K. 2008. Hydrochemical framework of the aquifer in and around East Kolkata Wetlands, West Bengal, India. Environmental Geology, 55(4), 823–835.
Sakizadeh, M. 2019. Spatial analysis of total dissolved solids in Dezful Aquifer: Comparison between universal and fixed rank kriging. Journal of Contaminant Hydrology, 221, 26–34.
Şener, Ş., Şener, E., Davraz, A. 2017. Evaluation of water quality using water quality index (WQI) method and GIS in Aksu River (SW-Turkey). Science of The Total Environment, 584–585, 131–144.
Shahid, S. U., Iqbal, J., Khan, S. J. 2017. A comprehensive assessment of spatial interpolation methods for the groundwater quality evaluation of Lahore, Punjab, Pakistan. NUST Journal of Engineering Sciences, 10(1), 1–13.
Singh, K. P., Malik, A., Mohan, D., Sinha, S. 2004. Multivariate statistical techniques for the evaluation of spatial and temporal variations in water quality of Gomti River (India)—a case study. Water Research, 38(18), 3980–3992.
Tahir Shah, M., Danishwar, S. 2003. Potential Fluoride Contamination in the Drinking Water of Naranji Area, Northwest Frontier Province, Pakistan. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 25(4), 475–481.
Tao, X. F., Huang, T., Li, X. F., Peng, D. P., 2016. Application of a PCA based water quality classification method in water quality assessment in the Tongjiyan Irrigation Area, China. International Conference on Energy and Environmental Protection (ICEEP 2016) Application, Atlantis Press.
Tiwari, K., Goyal, R., Sarkar, A. 2017. GIS-Based Spatial Distribution of Groundwater Quality and Regional Suitability Evaluation for Drinking Water. Environmental Processes, 4(3), 645–662.
Tripathi, M., Singal, S. K., 2019. Use of Principal Component Analysis f o r parameter selection for development of a novel Water Quality Index: A case study of river Ganga India. Ecological Indicators, 96, 430–436.
Varol, S., Davraz, A. 2015. Evaluation of the groundwater quality with WQI (Water Quality Index) and multivariate analysis: a case study of the Tefenniplain (Burdur/Turkey). Environmental Earth Sciences, 73(4), 1725–1744.
Viswanath, N. C., Kumar, P. G. D., Ammad, K. K., Kumari, E. R. U. 2015. Ground Water Quality and Multivariate Statistical Methods. Environmental Processes, 2(2), 347–360.
Webster, R., Oliver, M. 2007. Geostatistics for Environmental Scientists (2nd ed.). John Wiley and Sons, Ltd.
World Health Organization. 2010. Water for Health WHO Guidelines for Drinking- water. Retrievedfrom:http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/publications/guideline _policy_procedure/en/.
World health Organization. 2004. Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality, Volume 1. Geneva.
Wu, J., Norvell, W. A., Welch, R. M. 2006. Kriging on highly skewed data for DTPA-extractable soil Zn with auxiliary information for pH and organic carbon. Geoderma, 134(1–2), 187–199.
Yidana, S. M., Yidana, A. 2010. Assessing water quality using water quality index and multivariate analysis. Environmental Earth Sciences, 59(7), 1461–1473.
Yousefi, M., Saleh, H. N., Mohammadi, A. A., Hossein Mahvi, A., Ghadrpoori, M., Suleimani, H. 2017. Data on water quality index for the groundwater in rural area Neyshabur County, Razavi province, Iran. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dib.2017.10.052
